![]() Superparamagnetic iron oxide: pharmacokinetics and toxicity. 22 Weissleder R, Stark DD, Engelstad BL, et al.Abdominal MR imaging with a volumetric interpolated breath-hold examination. Primary sclerosing cholangitis: MR imaging features. 20 Ito K, Mitchell DG, Outwater EK, Blasbalg R.Hepatic arterial-phase dynamic gadolinium-enhanced MR imaging: optimization with a test examination and a power injector. 19 Earls JP, Rofsky NM, DeCorato DR, Krinsky GA, Weinreb JC.The use of iodinated and gadolinium contrast media during pregnancy and lactation. Safety of magnetic resonance contrast media. Safety of approved MR contrast media for intravenous injection. Safety review of gadopentetate dimeglumine: extended clinical experience after more than five million applications. 15 Niendorf HP, Alhassan A, Geens VR, Clauss W.Safety of magnetic resonance imaging contrast agents. Are gadolinium-based contrast media really safer than iodinated media for digital subtraction angiography in patients with azotemia? Radiology 2002 223: 311–318. 13 Nyman U, Elmstahl B, Leander P, Nilsson M, Golman K, Almen T.Renal tolerance of gadolinium-DTPA/dimeglumine in patients with chronic renal failure. 12 Haustein J, Niendorf HP, Krestin G, et al.Characteristics of gadolinium-DTPA complex: a potential NMR contrast agent. 11 Weinmann HJ, Brasch RC, Press WR, Wesbey GE.Delayed magnetic resonance hepatic imaging with gadolinium-DTPA. 10 Nelson RC, Umpierrez ME, Chezmar JL, Bernardino ME.CT and MR imaging of benign hepatic and biliary tumors. 9 Horton KM, Bluemke DA, Hruban RH, Soyer P, Fishman EK.Contrast agents for MR imaging of the liver. Nonspecificity of short inversion time inversion recovery (STIR) as a technique of fat suppression: pitfalls in image interpretation. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am 1996 4: 37–51. Currently used non-specific extracellular MR contrast media. 3 Bellin MF, Vasile M, Morel-Precetti S. ![]() The use of iron and gadolinium chelates as NMR contrast agents: animal and human studies. Liver contrast media for magnetic resonance imaging: interrelations between pharmacokinetics and imaging. ![]() However, a new combined MR contrast agent, gadobenate dimeglumine, recently was approved, and other agents are in various stages of development. Blood pool agents have not yet been approved for human use in the United States. Although mangafodipir is no longer commercially available in the United States, it is currently marketed and used in Europe. It may be used for MR cholangiography as well as liver imaging. Mangafodipir is a prototype hepatobiliary agent that is taken up by lesions with functioning hepatocytes. Ferumoxides are a useful adjunct for detection of hepatocellular carcinoma, particularly when used in combination with gadolinium to achieve improved lesion-to-liver contrast over that achievable with gadolinium alone. ![]() Gadolinium chelates are the most widely used. Mechanisms of action, dosage, elimination, toxic effects, indications for use, and MR imaging technical considerations vary according to class. ![]() The major classes of contrast agents currently used for magnetic resonance (MR) imaging of the liver include extracellular agents (eg, low-molecular-weight gadolinium chelates), reticuloendothelial agents (eg, ferumoxides), hepatobiliary agents (eg, mangafodipir), blood pool agents, and combined agents. ![]()
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